Session 3 - Physical and Cognitive Development
in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Introduction to Session 3

Click here for video transcript.

Thinking About Thinking

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss developmental psychologist who advanced a theory of cognitive development that combined the roles of brain maturation (nature) and interaction with the environment (nurture). According to Piaget, humans move through four stages of cognitive development:

• Sensorimotor stage
• Pre-operational stage
• Concrete operational stage
• Formal operations stage

Piaget proposed a model for how learning takes place. He identified the initial or existing pattern of understanding as a schema.  When new information is presented, the process of adjusting or learning is called adaptation.  There are two forms of adaptation: assimilation or accommodation.  Adaptation is necessary because there is "discomfort" or interruption in equilibrium when conflict between new data and existing understanding are left unresolved. The necessary adaption resolves the discomfort, which results in learning or a new schema.  This circular pattern, repeated millions of times, is Piaget's explanation of how humans learn new things. 

Piaget's stages are a study in how new information is received. As human capacity changes over the lifespan, the process for acquiring information also matures or improves. The next section of the lecture will expand on the early stages to provide a foundation or theoretical framework from which we can draw as we approach Christian education. Then, the last section will explore direct application as we prepare an environment that helps children learn about the Bible, the world, and God.

Sensorimotor (Stage 1) – birth to two years

Piaget proposed six sub-stages in which the objective is to coordinate sensory motor sequences to solve problems.

• Reflexive – birth to first month
• Primary – 1 to 4 months, infant develops awareness of the body
• Secondary – 4 to 8 months, infant develops awareness of objects outside the body
• Coordination – 8 to 12 months, infant begins to coordinate the body and objects
• Tertiary – 12 to 18 months, infants experiment to solve problems through trial and error
• Mental solutions – 18 to 24 months, infants think about problems to solve them

There are three notable milestones in sensory motor learning.  First is the development of object permanence, the ability to understand that things exist even when we no longer perceive them.  Babies enjoy the game of peek-a-boo because they perceive that the hidden object literally disappears (or ceases to exist) and reappears in the world.  The second milestone is imitation, in which the child copies or mimics another's behavior.  This is fully developed at the third milestone, which is deferred imitation.  Deferred imitation is copying the actions of someone who is no longer present. 

Pre-operational thought (Stage 2) – ages 2 to 7

The preschool years are a time for gathering the necessary language, thinking skills, understanding of symbols (including words), and communication skills.  In Piaget's theory, this is viewed as the time when the children get all the materials ready before starting to build logical thought.  This "pre logical" window is defined primarily by what they cannot do or the logic mistakes young children make.

Common logic mistakes:

• Transductive reasoning – Preschoolers cannot generalize, but focus on particulars.  For example, when first graders are given the task of making rules for the classroom, they will come up with a very long list, rather than a general rule. Rather than saying, "We will keep our classroom clean and neat," first graders may list, "Put away blocks.  Put away crayons.  Put away papers. etc."
• Syncretism – This is a logic error in which children incorrectly link ideas.  For example, a little girl caught her father putting money under her pillow in exchange for a tooth.  When she told her best friend about it, both girls concluded the daddy was the tooth fairy; not all daddies are tooth fairies but that specific father was the tooth fairy for everyone.
• Egocentrism – Egocentrism is the inability to take another's perspective.  This is the underlying difficulty in sharing toys.  It is why we are teaching much more than manners when we help children learn to share.
• Centration – Centration is the inability to change focus.  Small children may become intensely focused on one thing or desire and not have the ability to turn that focus off.  We may see this in the grocery store, when a child that decides he wants an item and throws a temper tantrum.  Effective discipline involves helping the child shift to thinking about something else. The underlying issue is the child's inability to change focus.
• Conservation of mass – This is the lack of ability to understand that weight and mass remain the same regardless of their shape.  The classic example is pouring the same amount of water into different shaped containers.  Preschoolers tended to make a mistake by believing that the larger container contains more water simply because of its shape.
• Classification – Preschoolers struggle with subset categories.  For example, they may not have a difficult time separating boys from girls, but they made struggle with forming a third group that is made of blondes.
• Reversibility – Preschoolers lack understanding that operations can be reversed.  Again, the water container illustration is commonly used.  If water is poured from a tall, thin cylinder into a short wide pan, preschoolers often believe that there is more water in the larger container.  When asked if the water can be poured from the large container back into the cylinder, preschoolers will say that it won't fit, despite the fact that it was just poured out of the cylinder.

There are two other pre-logical "mistakes" that are generally seen as more positive:

• Symbolic play – Preschoolers often use one object to represent another.  For example, dolls may be imaginatively used as real people at a tea party.
• Animism – Animism is applying life like qualities to inanimate objects. The classic example is Transformer® toys, in which cars and other vehicles change into human-like figures.

We can see in these examples that some logic is at work.  The volume of liquid in a wide pan does appear larger than the volume in the thin cylinder.  So, children are making a logical observation.  However, with experience they will integrate new rules that correct these errors.

Concrete operations (Stage 3) – ages 7 to 11

The concrete operations stage is marked by overcoming the pre-operational errors.  Classification, conservation of mass, and reversibility are developed.  In addition, school age children are able to perform class inclusion, when objects can be in two classes at the same time (such as boys and blondes).

Some new abilities are also developed in this stage: 

• Serialization – the ability to put things in order
• Hierarchical classification – the ability to put order to a classification of objects
• Combinativity – the ability to put two or more groups together to define or create a new class.
• Associativity – the ability to reach a goal through a variety of ways.  For example, school age children learn that a different number combinations can all add up to the number 13.
• Nullifibility – the understanding that opposite operations cancel each other out. 

Formal operations (Stage 4) – ages 11 to adulthood

Formal operations will be introduced during the session on adolescence, but it is the attainment of fully functional logical and rational thought.

Growing Up Big and Strong
As noted in our text, Piaget's theory is no longer fully accepted, but all the observations and theories of learning with very young children confirmed that sensory and motor stimulation are keys for shaping the learning environment.  Ones and two year-olds have rapidly developing abilities. Awareness of these abilities provides direction for age-appropriate activities.

One-year-olds are mastering gross motor skills and beginning to develop fine motor skills. One year-olds can sit in chairs, climb, make basic scribbles with markers on paper, carry objects, and move to music.  Even before language fully develops, they are trying to make themselves understood through verbal and physical expression. They love to try things, to experiment, and learn through trial and error. They remember simple events, such as going to church or the grocery store.  They begin to identify the connection of words with real items; they can name body parts, animals from pictures or sounds, family members, and other familiar items.  The learning environment should be planned with lots of movement and a variety of activities.

Two-year-olds are usually very excited about their own developing abilities.  As they gain gross motor control, they can jump, run, ride a tricycle, stand on one leg, walk between parallel lines, and help with simple tasks, such as undressing themselves.  They rapidly develop a vocabulary of up to 300 words, learning one to three words a week from 12 to 18 months and as many as one or two words a day between 18 and 24 months.  At around 200 words, toddlers produce their first two-word combinations.  They can match, compare, sort, and group similar items.  They know the colors, begin using numbers, and can sing songs.

The Environment for Learning

As we plan for young preschoolers, we want to provide the space and the types of activity that will harness these developing abilities to learn about God and the Bible.  The space need for preschoolers varies according to the number of children. 

Recommendations include the followin:

If groups are combined, the key issues are maintaining a proper teacher to child ratio and having a safe environment for all the ages sharing space. Because younger preschoolers are learning from activity and imitation, classrooms should provide plenty of opportunities for movement and exploration.  If possible, we want to provide learning centers or areas where play and imitation can be used to teach.  These activity centers enable us to respond to physical development with appropriate furnishings and active learning.  They also allow us to respond to the development of language and to include the Bible in early vocabulary.

Preschool rooms have seven activity centers to provide structure for children to learn spiritual truths.

• Art center – a table (30" by 48" by 22") with 2 to 4 10" chairs.  Markers, foam brushes, finger paints, and washable paints can be used by this age group.  An easel and drying rack are helpful, ha is a child height sink for cleanup.  Protect all surfaces with vinyl or paper tablecloths and drop cloths under the easels or on the floor for messy activities.  Provide paintings smocks to protect children's clothes.

Encourage creativity by avoiding models to copy or coloring book drawings.  Avoid asking, "What is it?" but allow children to tell you about their picture.  Within limits, expect art to be messy, but not wasteful or disrespectful of other's work.  Help parents understand that art is not to make something to take home, but a teaching experience connected to the Bible.

The Environment for Learning (cont.)

• Block center – one or two areas on a carpeted floor with bins for block storage.  Babies through twos generally use cardboard blocks.  For older preschoolers, wood or plastic blocks may be used.  While homemade blocks can be used, block sets may be purchased that help children learn proportion, balance, and shapes. The area can include toy boats, cars, trucks, and airplanes, as well as traffic signs.  PVC pipe and fittings, coffee cans or cardboard cylinders, and fabric, carpet, or blankets add to creativity.  As children play in the block area, they use blocks to help role play or to act out the biblical stories and talk about spiritual truths.

• Book center – books and pictures are one way for children to learn about both Bible stories and everyday experiences.  One-year-olds can turn pages, point to pictures, and enjoy simple rhymes.  Pictures should be realistic, uncluttered, have familiar objects, and be within a child's understanding.  For twos, books can be integrated into the Bible learning experiences.  Books help children increase their awareness of the world God made. Reading allows them to touch, see, and hear the Bible and learn how to live.

• Home living center – the home living area as a great way to build on preschooler's capacity to learn by imitation, to express emotions through dramatic play, and to give a classroom the familiarity and safety of home.  The same basic home living materials will be used by all ages of preschoolers, although each age group will use them differently according to their development.  The area itself will be one of the noisier and busier areas of the room, so it should be close to other noisy centers such as blocks.

The center should feature a wooden sink, a wooden stove, a doll bed, and a child-size rocker.  A table (24" by 36" by 22") with 2 to 4 10" chairs and an unbreakable mirror (48" by 24") give children all the major elements of a home.  Dolls, doll clothes, toy telephones, and play food will help younger preschoolers engage creatively.  Bible learning takes place to conversation and exploration in the home living activity center.

The Environment for Learning (cont.)

• Music center – music is a valuable activity center.  Older preschoolers will incorporate rhythm instruments, but younger children will benefit from a cassette tape/CD player as the primary equipment. In the music area, we help children learn through:
  • Listening – children can hear songs, stories, noises, and the sounds of the natural world.  As we ask questions about what they hear, we encourage the acquisition of a "sound of vocabulary."
  • Singing – preschool songs should be simple and in a middle range.  The goal is music appreciation rather than musical accuracy. Familiar songs, such as "Row, Row, Row Your Boat" can be combined with spiritual songs or new words written to the tune.
  • Movement – I remember when my daughter was two years-old. She wanted everyone to sway and do hand motions to the song, "Hip Hip Hip Hippopotamus." It always brought her delight, and my wife and I particularly loved watching our adult friends participate. 

Music can also be used to welcome children, during movement between centers, as children participate in art, or when they need some quiet time.

The Environment for Learning (cont.)

• Nature center – the nature center for older preschoolers may have a table and chairs and a variety of resources, but for younger preschoolers the nature center is simply an open shelf, about 30" long with a closed back.  Collectible items, such as shells, small rocks, bark, nature pictures, and pine cones should be added and changed regularly.  For safety, be sure all items are too large to swallow and clean items with soap and water after use.  Of course, the nature center can extend out of doors.  Babies and ones may ride in strollers, but twos will be ready for nature walks.

• Puzzle center – puzzles and manipulative help preschoolers develop fine motor skills and eye-hand coordination functions.  Ones and twos are capable of puzzles with 2 to 6 pieces.  While the most common puzzles are wood inlay puzzles, clear contact paper or laminate can be used to create a variety of homemade puzzles.  In addition, the puzzle area is a great place for nesting cups, plastic beads, or shape sorting toys.

The puzzle area, like the book center, is a quiet area.  For younger preschoolers, a carpeted floor area is sufficient, although older children may prefer a table and chairs.  Teach children to remove the puzzle pieces and place them to the left of the board.  Solving puzzles from left to right helps improve reading readiness.  As with all preschool centers, the puzzles and indicative should be kept clean and well maintained.

In conclusion, there is a direct link between the growing physical abilities and the cognitive understanding of preschoolers. Exploration and discovery help children experience the world. In Bible study, we are providing early experiences with Bible stories, songs, biblical words, and Bible verses. These help children develop a basic understanding and vocabulary for later spiritual growth and development. When we tell younger children that God loves them, talk to them about all the interesting things God has made, and teach them about Jesus, we help them express thanks to God and build a foundation for their spiritual life.

Source:

Sanders, T., & Bradberry, M. (2000). Teaching preschoolers: First steps toward faith. Nashville, TN: Lifeway Press.

Can you recall the correct order of Piaget's stages of cognitive development?